Keywords: Mekong, Mekong River Commission, hydropower, fisheries, agriculture, runoff regulation, dams, interstate contradictions

The Mekong is the central waterway of all of Indochina, the tenth longest river in the world. In total, 60 million people in China's Yunnan Province, Myanmar (Burma), Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam depend on this river for their well-being. The Mekong river fauna is very diverse and is second only to the Amazon in its richness. In the river basin, researchers are discovering new species of animals and plants.

Fishing is the main activity and means of feeding the inhabitants of coastal areas, and fish is almost the only source of animal protein for the majority of the population.

The main agricultural crop in the Mekong Valley is rice, the largest producer of which in the region is Vietnam, on the territory of which the river delta is located with its fertile soils.

Since the mid-20th century. The great river of Southeast Asia also has an energy function. The first hydroelectric power stations were built on its tributaries. Today, the issue of damming the main riverbed has also been raised. China, Thailand, Vietnam and Laos actively use Mekong water as an energy resource. If Vietnam is called the" rice bowl " of Indochina, Laos claims to be the "regional battery". 13 hydroelectric power stations with a total capacity of 3,200 MW have already been built on its territory. The main buyer of Lao electricity is economically more developed Thailand.

The energy component in the problem of using the resources of the Mekong River is gradually coming to the fore. By 2030, riparian countries plan to build a total of 88 dams in the river basin; to date, more than 30 have been built. However, the plans for their further construction have many opponents. After all, if all these projects are implemented, they will radically change the traditional way of life of the population, the river flow regime, will lead to changes in the habitat of representatives of many types of river fauna, will cause the relocation of millions of people caught in flood zones, and will also cause irreparable harm to the ecological state of not only the river, but

Fortunately, mechanisms have already been established to regulate issues related to the exploitation of Mekong resources and overcome emerging problems and contradictions. The main one is the Mekong River Commission.

WHAT IS THE EFFECTIVENESS OF REGULATORY MECHANISMS?

This Commission, being an intergovernmental structure, was established in accordance with the 1995 interstate Agreement on Cooperation for the Long-term Development of the Mekong River Basin. It is one of the most successful international instruments for integrated regulation of basin-type water issues. However, upon closer inspection, many hidden objects become visible.

problems in its work, as a result of which the real effect of the Commission's activities does not always meet expectations.

The Commission was not created from scratch. Back in 1957, under the auspices of the United Nations, the Mekong Committee was established, whose tasks included coordinating the interests and coordinating the positions of the basin countries for the implementation of joint projects for the development of water resources in the lower reaches of the river. The Committee was funded by France, Japan and the United States.

At that time, the most urgent task was to restore the river infrastructure destroyed during the first Indochina War, and restore navigation in the lower reaches of the river.

The creation of the Committee was the result of an agreement between four downstream countries-Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos. China and Myanmar, the upstream countries, did not participate in the process of establishing the Committee. These two States are also not party to the 1995 agreement, although they participate in the work of the Commission as invited members. They do not make a formal commitment to report their actions in exploiting the Mekong to the rest of the basin, but they do sometimes provide requested hydrological data as a gesture of goodwill.

In 1970, large-scale waterworks projects were first unveiled to protect the Mekong Delta from floods, droughts and provide the region with electricity. In its Indicative Plan, the Mekong Committee proposed the construction of 7 large multi-purpose dams on the main riverbed. However, by the early 1990s, only one dam had been built on the Nam Nguyen River in Laos. The committee's functions were ultimately limited to providing information, environmental and technical assistance to Laos and Thailand in the implementation of individual projects on the Mekong tributaries. ¹ The political situation in Indochina was too unstable at that time. In 1978, the Mekong Committee was renamed the Provisional Mekong River Committee without Cambodia's participation.

The 1975 Agreement that established the Mekong Committee was purely advisory in nature. The parties to the agreement did not even seek to provide the Committee with information about planned dam construction projects. For this reason, there was a conflict between Thailand and Vietnam in the early 1990s.

In 1991. Thailand began to develop a diversion canal project in the north-east of the country without discussing the issue in the Committee and without obtaining the consent of other States. The Vietnamese side, having learned about the project, opposed it, because its implementation could negatively affect the country's agriculture. If the level of the Mekong were to drop, the salty waters of the South China Sea would flood the fertile land in the river delta where Vietnamese grow rice and other crops.

To breathe new life into quadrilateral cooperation (Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam), the Committee was transformed into the Mekong River Commission in 1995. Its donors were: The Asian Development Bank, the World Bank, ASEAN, Australia, Belgium, Denmark, the European Commission, Finland, France, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Sweden and the United States.

According to Article 1 of the 1995 Cooperation Agreement, the Commission's area of interest includes "... irrigation, hydropower, navigation, flood control, fishing, forest rafting, recreation and tourism". Moreover, this list can be expanded. The Commission's area of responsibility also includes"...protection of the environment, natural sources, water life and water conditions in the river basin" (art. 3). Priority is given to joint international projects (art. 2). If during the rainy season intra - basin water use requires only notification to the Joint Committee (SC) of the Commission, and inter-basin water intake requires prior consultation and consent of the SC, then in the case of dry season inter-basin water intake should be subject to a special agreement (Article 5) ².

The 1995 Agreement, like the 1975 Agreement, does not specify coercive measures, but states that all disputes should be resolved amicably, through discussion in a Joint Committee, or submitted to experts for discussion, or referred to Governments that can use intermediaries (Articles 34, 35, 18C, 24F)³.

The Commission also organized an annual Forum on River Flow control and an annual Forum on Mekong Floods. The Commission is implementing a programme for the protection and management of wetlands of special value in the lower river basin, with a focus on creating a "community-based" resource management system for the development of agriculture, fisheries and forestry, as well as a number of other programmes.⁴

Foreign experts and international investors play a significant role in the work of the Mekong Commission. This organization is 90% funded by international donors, who, by the way, have their own ideas about how to use their money. The Commission, therefore, has to constantly take into account the polar interests of stakeholders and participating countries, so the final result of its work does not satisfy everyone.

Since 2007, the Commission has been under constant attack from civil society, the private sector and donors for its work.

closure and inability to find adequate responses to emerging threats to fisheries and agriculture due to new development plans in the river basin. In turn, the Commission recalls that it is not a supranational structure, but sees its main function in implementing the tasks set for it by the Governments of the founding countries. ⁵

At the same time, the governments of the downstream states themselves continue to give priority to national programs, without coordinating them with their neighbors, although this procedure is prescribed in the Mekong Cooperation Agreement. The actual state of affairs shows that the Commission also fails to monitor and prevent emerging environmental problems. Major dams that have already been built, such as Yali Falls in Vietnam and Pak Mun in Thailand, are particularly controversial.

Critics of the Commission say that its activities are largely limited to the exchange of information and opinions, as well as to paperwork in the form of writing various reports and recommendations.⁶ However, even in this case, there are many benefits: The Commission has developed a considerable body of knowledge on all issues related to the functioning of the river and its biosystems.

Criticism of the Commission is related to the fact that, while its work on the Mekong is certainly useful, its conclusions are mostly advisory in nature, and the recommendations are not binding and are often ignored. Difficulties in its work are also added by China, which refuses to cooperate.

There are also new organizations that monitor solutions to the problems of exploitation of the Great Asian River, but they do not play a big role in solving specific problems, but only indicate the interests of new players. As an example, a sub - regional organization with Indian participation, Mekong Ganges Cooperation Initiatives, was established in November 2000. In addition to India, it also includes Vietnam, Cambodia,Laos, Myanmar and Thailand. ⁷

THE CHINA FACTOR

The work of the Mekong Commission is significantly strained by China's uncontrolled activities in the upper reaches of the river. It owns 13.5% of the runoff and actively exploits these water resources. China's construction of dams on the Mekong led to a critical drop in the river's water level in 2004 and 2010. The unwillingness of the Chinese authorities to release some of the water accumulated by the hydroelectric dams during the dry season caused a catastrophic shallowing of the river and made navigation impossible, caused environmental damage and threatened an economic catastrophe for the entire region.

By 2010, China had built 3 hydroelectric power stations in the upper Mekong River, and a fourth was under construction. The current catastrophic water situation has not changed the PRC's plans to build 4 more hydroelectric power stations on the Mekong River itself and 9 on its tributaries. Beijing has pleaded not guilty to the shallowing of the river, saying that only 13% of the water comes from China, and the rest of the flow is formed by rain collected by Mekong tributaries in the territories of countries located downstream.⁸ At the same time, the Chinese did not mention that the basis for feeding the lower Mekong in the dry season is precisely runoff from China.

However, judging by the statements coming from the PRC, the country's government is taking measures to reduce the impact of its own hydroelectric power plants on river flow in countries located downstream. In particular, the capacity of the Gan Lanba hydroelectric power station-the seventh stage of the upper cascade of power plants located near the China - Myanmar border-was reduced from the original 600 MW to 155 MW. In addition, the function of this station has changed radically: from an electric generating station, it has become a conventional reservoir designed to regulate the flow to stabilize the water level in the Mekong River outside the PRC.⁹

In China, huge attention is paid to the development of hydropower. Almost half of the world's existing dams are located on its territory, and new hydraulic structures are also being built. Special hopes are pinned on the Mekong, whose sources are located on the Tibetan plateau. On its bed in the Chinese province of Yunnan, a whole cascade of dams is being built. The construction of this cascade caused a surge of interest in the planned lower Mekong dams, as the proposed change in the flow regime of the river due to upstream dams increases the economic importance of dams in the lower course. A cascade of dams in China is expected to increase runoff by an average of 10-50% during the dry season, affecting more of northern Laos and Thailand.¹⁰

It is also interesting that China itself is actively "pushing" the construction of hydroelectric power stations by lower-stream countries on the Mekong, offering its assistance in their construction. Of the 11 planned dams on the lower Mekong main channel, China is ready to finance four: Pak Beng (Laos, installed capacity 1,230 MW), Pak Lei (Laos, 1,320 MW), Xanaham (Laos, 570 MW) and Sambor (Cambodia, 2,600 MW). These projects are less designed for export to China than for domestic consumption and export to Thailand and Vietnam.¹¹

In 2009, the Thai government estimated that the country's electricity demand would double by 2021, while Vietnam's electricity demand is projected to increase 4-fold by 2015.12

NEW HYDROPOWER PROJECTS: PROS AND CONS

In 1994, as an alternative to the two-decade plan.-

Planned dams on the main channel of the Lower Mekong.

Several years earlier, a new plan for the construction of large hydroelectric facilities on the main channel of the Mekong in the lower reaches of the river was announced. Now it provided for the construction of 11 dams. But the implementation of this large-scale project was also frozen as a result of the Asian financial crisis that broke out in 1997. Another renewed interest in hydroelectric projects on the main riverbed was spurred by higher gas and oil prices, increased consumer demand for electricity, and the expected increase in the river's flow during dry seasons due to the construction of a cascade of dams in China.

Laos, a major supplier of electricity to fast-growing Thailand, has already built 13 hydroelectric power stations on the tributaries of the river and is building new stations. For this country, the sale of electricity is the main revenue item of the budget. Nam Theun 2 dam alone can provide almost 10% of this portion of Laos ' national budget.¹³

According to plans for the development of hydropower in the lower Mekong, 9 hydroelectric power stations should appear on the main channel of the river in Laos. Another 2 stations on the main channel of the Mekong are going to be built in Cambodia. In 2008, investors signed project development agreements with the Government of Laos for two of these 11 hydroelectric power stations, Sayaburi and Don Sahong.

The management of upstream runoff and the implementation of at least some of the proposed downstream projects will have a profound and diverse impact on all areas of life in the four lower Mekong riparian countries. At the same time, it is still impossible to accurately calculate all the pros and cons of these projects. It is only known that the side negative effect will be a serious burden on nature: a significant decrease in biodiversity, a decrease in the fish population, siltation and the alleged penetration of salty sea waters into the river delta.

Large dams already built on Mekong tributaries are still being criticized for causing damage to both the population and nature. A striking example is Vietnam's Yali Falls dam (installed capacity of 720 MW HPP) on the Sesan River. It caused huge damage to the Cambodian province of Ratanakiri, located 70 km downstream. 3 years after the construction of the dam began (1993), extreme floods began to occur in the province, leading to the loss of livestock, flooding of agricultural fields and personal property of the local population. A study by Bruce McKenney, an economist with long-standing experience in Cambodia, found that between 1996 and 1999, material losses totaled $800,000, or $237 per household.¹⁴ However, representatives of the Vietnamese side dispute this data.

During the construction of the dam (1993 - 2001), floods in the Cambodian province claimed the lives of 39 people. Created in 2000 by a coalition of Cambodian and international non-governmental organizations, the Sesan Working Group (later known as the Network for the Protection of Indigenous Peoples) Sesan) It also found that as a result of the construction of the Yali Falls dam, the strength of flooding increased, including during the dry season, and the floods themselves became unpredictable. At the same time, water quality deteriorated and fish catch decreased ¹⁵.

Plans to implement large hydropower projects already on the main riverbed without carefully calculating all the consequences of dam construction have caused sharp condemnation of the world community. The Mekong Commission did not stand aside, having conducted a " Strategic Environmental Assessment of the construction of a hydroelectric power station on the main channel of the Mekong River." Published on October 15, 2010. The final report states the need to introduce a 10-year moratorium on decision-making in relation to planned hydroelectric power plants. After all, over the years you can find more profitable ones

options for developing hydropower using new technologies. In addition, the current level of knowledge and monitoring system are not sufficient to assess the diverse consequences of the construction of a hydroelectric power station on the main riverbed right now. According to experts, the proposed plans for the development of the main channel are fraught with high costs and extremely unequal distribution of benefits and losses, and also do not correspond to the aspirations of the Mekong Basin population in the XXI century. ¹⁶

The world community supported the idea of a moratorium. In particular, the World Wildlife Fund and the US leadership supported its introduction. At the international summit in Bali (Indonesia) in 2011, US Secretary of State H. Clinton has sharply criticized plans to build new hydroelectric power stations on Southeast Asia's largest river, saying it would cause a massive environmental disaster. And a group of scientists from the Australian National University and specialists from the World Wildlife Fund states:: "If these 11 dams are built, fish stocks will be reduced by 16%, which implies a financial loss of $476 million per year.

Due to the active breeding of livestock (caused by a decrease in fish stocks), it is assumed that land that will have to be given for pasture will suffer, and water consumption will increase"¹⁷. If at first the dam reservoirs will occupy 1350 square meters. Countries will need at least 4,863 square kilometers of new pasture land to replace fish with livestock meat in their diets. Compensatory development of animal husbandry in the Mekong basin states will lead to an increase in water consumption, on average, by 6-17%, and in some countries even more. For example, Cambodia is expected to increase water consumption for livestock by 29-64% ¹⁸.

Local fishermen also oppose the construction of dams on the main riverbed. In Vietnam, they fear shallowing of the river, silting up of the bottom, salinization of delta lands, disruption of fish migration routes and a decrease in their population, as well as flooding of vast territories. It is assumed that in the case of the construction of the Lao Chayaburi hydroelectric power station, 90 square kilometers of surrounding land will be flooded and there will be a need to relocate 28 villages with about 200 thousand inhabitants. peasants ¹⁹. However, so far, neither the Commission's report, nor the statements of independent experts, nor the protests of the local population and the governments of neighboring countries have affected the plans of Laos and Cambodia. In 2011, the Thai state-owned energy company EGAT signed a contract with the Lao Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources for the construction of the first of 11 hydroelectric power plants on the main channel of the Mekong. In the Lao province of Chayaburi, a construction site for a future hydroelectric power station has been cleared, and the necessary roads have already been laid. By the way, the cost of the Chayaburi HPP is $3.8 billion, and its planned capacity is 1,285 MW.

However, at this stage, the implementation of the project for the construction of this hydroelectric power station has been suspended, but it is not completely closed.

With regard to the Don Sahong hydroelectric power Station, in September 2013, the Government of Laos notified the Mekong Commission of its decision to resume work on Project ²⁰, although representatives of Cambodia, Thailand and Viet Nam indicated that preliminary consultations were necessary. It is assumed that the dam should be located on the five-kilometer Hu Sehong Channel, located about 2 km upstream from the Lao-Cambodian border.

The danger of this dam is that Hu Sehong is the main migration channel for fish in the dry season. Although there are two other alternative channels for this migration that can be improved for the benefit of fisheries, the viability of new fish migration routes is questioned by representatives of Cambodia, Thailand and Viet Nam. In particular, the head of the Cambodian delegation, Te Newat, said :" We see that the project documentation is incomplete, and the presented research results do not cover cross-border problems in countries like Cambodia. If alternative routes (for fish migration) do not function well, this dam will affect food security in Cambodia. " ²¹

So far, all hydropower projects on the main channel of the Mekong face the problem of not being able to overcome the serious negative consequences that they bring to fishing and agriculture.

ACUTE AND COMPLEX FISHING PROBLEMS

One of the most serious arguments against the development of hydropower in the Mekong is that blocking the main water flow can prevent the migration of many dozens of fish species that move upstream to spawning grounds. This will be a severe blow to the population of coastal countries, whose food and well-being directly depend on fishing. Fishing on the Mekong accounts for about 2% of the world's total fisheries, both sea and river, and is the largest river fishery in ^the world22.

In monetary terms, fishing brings in $2-3 billion. ²³. 64-93% of rural households in the lower Mekong basin are involved in fishing in one way or another. Fish consumption provides 47-80% of the animal protein consumed by the population (depending on the country); it is the main source for local residents.

for the normal functioning of the human body of calcium, iron, zinc, as well as vitamins ²⁴.

87% of the Mekong fish species migrate long distances, and the migration itself is highly dependent on the "flood - drought" cycles. The scale of the flood also affects fish reproduction: during long-term floods, catches increase.

According to an analysis conducted under the Decision Support Framework program under the auspices of the Mekong Commission, the proposed 11 downstream dams will not radically change the hydrological regime in the upper cascade in the PRC and "...will not affect the flood regime and contribute to the penetration of salt water (into the delta)"²⁵. The seasonal regime of the Mekong: dry-wet periods, will remain unchanged. Moreover, in the lower reaches of the river, in the area of Tonle Sap Lake, the upper cascade will only slightly change the volume, duration and time of annual floods. ²⁶

Thus, theoretically, a change in the flow regime can only slightly affect fish reproduction. However, the danger of dams for fishing is not limited to changes in the hydrological regime. And, by the way, it is from these positions that the Commission's analysis of the situation was criticized - it does not take into account many factors. In particular: water quality, sediment accumulation and increased algae development, disruption of fish migration routes and much more, which is an integral part of the functioning of the Mekong ecosystem as a whole. There are studies that show more serious consequences of changing the flow regime. For example, a study conducted jointly with experts from Finland states that even a small change in water level negatively affects large areas of coastal forest.²⁷

Fishing here is mainly based on the catch of migratory fish; approximately 40 to 70% of catches in the Lower Mekong basin depend on long-distance migratory fish. In Cambodia, the production of migratory fish accounts for most of the annual catch, estimated at 400 thousand tons per year28.

In total, 2.5 million tons of fish are caught annually in the Mekong River basin. Dams also threaten this fishery, which is confirmed by practice. Thus, after the completion of the Nam Song dam (Laos) in 1996, 40 species of fish completely disappeared in the river, and 20 species of migratory fish were completely caught in neighboring countries. The construction of the Pak Moon Dam resulted in the disappearance of 169 fish species upstream of the dam, while the fish population of 51 species declined significantly.²⁹

Thus, dams planned to be built on the main riverbed are likely to cause a significant reduction in fish stocks throughout the lower Mekong. Among the endangered fish are the giant carp (its weight can reach 270 kg) and the seven-striped barb. As a result of the construction of the Chayaburi dam, among other fish, the giant Mekong catfish may suffer, which, according to the Guinness Book of Records, is the largest

freshwater fish in the world (up to 300 kg). According to the Commission's calculations, the catch of migratory fish in the case of dams on the main riverbed may decrease by 0.7-1.6 million tons per year30, which is up to half of the current level.

Of the solutions that reduce the negative impact of dams on fishing, only two are known: the construction of bypass channels for the passage of fish and its breeding in special reservoirs. Both of these methods are ineffective in this particular case: of the hundreds of fish species in the Mekong basin, only 9 can breed in captivity. As for the fish passageways, so far there is not a single such structure on the Mekong that can pass a huge amount of fish.³¹

LOWER MEKONG AGRICULTURE

Most of the cultivated land in the lower Mekong basin is used for rainfed agriculture, but the area of land with artificial irrigation is constantly increasing in all four countries of this sub-region. The total area of irrigated land here is about ⁴ million ha32. Most of them are in Vietnam, namely in the Mekong Delta-1.7 million ha. Thailand ranks second in terms of the volume of irrigated fields - 1.4 million hectares. Cambodia irrigates 0.5 million ha and Laos 0.2 million ha. ³³ Today, more than 70% of the lower Mekong's water resources are used for irrigation.³⁴ According to the ambitious plans of these countries, over the next 20 years, the territories covered by irrigation should increase to 5.3 million hectares, i.e. by 32%, including the area of fields irrigated in the dry season should increase from 1.2 to 1.7 million hectares, i.e. by 42% ^.35

Therefore, it is logical that the implementation of major energy projects on the Mekong River comes into conflict not only with the fishing industry, but also with agriculture. At the same time, increasing runoff during the dry season by releasing water from upstream reservoirs can improve irrigation opportunities. In any case, the interdependence of energy and agricultural projects is obvious. This is clearly seen in Vietnam, where the agricultural sector is highly dependent on the industrial plans of its upstream neighbors.

An equally important factor for a country with several provinces located in a river delta is the problem of climate change. After all, the Mekong Delta is only less than 5 m above sea level, making it one of the three most vulnerable deltas in the world to sea level rise.³⁶

Vietnam faces several challenges under these conditions. On the one hand, it needs to mitigate the impact of possible floods on the territory, caused both by climate fluctuations and related to the operation of dams. On the other hand, it is necessary to prevent salt intrusion from the sea, as well as to address irrigation issues during the drought season. Although the development of hydroelectric power also remains relevant.

Agriculture is recognized as the most important economic activity in the lower Mekong basin. Agricultural crops such as rice, fruit trees, cassava, sugar cane, soybeans and maize are grown in all the Mekong countries, but the best climate conditions for the agricultural sector of this sub-region are located in the delta.

Agricultural returns are low in Cambodia and Northeastern Thailand due to water scarcity during the dry season, while in Laos and the central Highlands of Vietnam they are average. The only area where farmers can harvest up to 7 rice crops in two years is the delta. Rice is the main crop grown and consumed in the region. Rice fields in the lower Mekong basin cover more than 10 million hectares of cultivated land, including rainfed ³⁷.

In addition to food production, rice fields and their irrigation systems have other useful functions, including for the river ecosystem: flood mitigation, groundwater replenishment, river flow stabilization, water capture and reuse for irrigation, soil erosion control, landslide prevention, water treatment, microclimate mitigation, and biodiversity conservation ³⁸. Flooded rice fields serve as a food and growth area for fish.

However, due to the changing climate, agriculture in the Mekong basin is under threat. Studies show that an increase in the average night temperature of just 1 degree will lead to a 10% reduction in rice yield. Rising _CO2 emissions also reduce protein concentrations in fruit39. Climate change is shifting traditional crop habitats. Climate change will also increase the frequency of extreme events, especially floods and droughts.

For the Mekong Delta, there is also an additional danger. Possible sea level rise increases the likelihood of salt water entering the river system, which will lead to the death of many agricultural crops and river flora and fauna. It is believed that if the sea level rises by only 70 cm, this will be enough to lead to flooding of low-lying and coastal areas and pose a threat, including to people. Meanwhile, the Mekong Delta is home to 18 million people, or 32% of Vietnam's population. This is one of the main economic regions of the country and its main breadbasket. Here is 40% of the cultivated land, which gives half of the sobi-

the country's largest rice crop (90% is exported) and 60% is fruit. The region's share in the country's GNP is 25%. Economic losses from the flooding of the Mekong Delta are estimated at $17 billion. ⁴⁰ per year.

The loss of this economic gem will be irreparable for both Vietnam and the entire sub-region. It will affect the vital interests not only of Vietnamese citizens, but also affect the economy of the entire planet.

* * *

The cross-border nature of river systems around the world inevitably leads to a clash of national interests, and the multifunctionality of water adds intersectoral contradictions. The Mekong River Commission has developed a significant knowledge base on the functioning of river biosystems, and this knowledge needs to be applied more broadly. The need to regulate controversial issues related to the use of the Mekong River, which is rich not only in flora and fauna, but also in contradictions of various levels, provides a broad basis for further research. At the same time, it is obvious that these studies will necessarily have to take into account the role of the rapidly changing climate on the planet.

The knowledge already developed by the Mekong River Commission and affiliated international institutions can also be used to analyze the complex problems that arise on other transboundary rivers.

^{Rogozhina N. G.} 1 Ekologicheskaya strategia stran Yugo-Vostochnoi Azii (sotsialno-politicheskiy aspect), Moscow, IMEMO RAS, 2010, p. 8. (Rogozhina N. G. 2010. Ekologicheskaya strategia stran Yugo-Vostochnoi Azii (sotsialno-politicheskiy aspect), Moscow) (in Russian)

² Agreement on the Cooperation for the sustainable development of the Mekong river basin. 5 April 1995 - http://www.mrcmekong.org/ assets/Publications/agreements/agreement-Apr95.pdf

³ Ibidem.

^{Rogozhina N. G.} 4 Decree. soch., p. 103.

^{Bird J.} 5 MRCS CEO Statement in response to letter from TERRA dated 27 March 2008, 11 April 2008, p. 2 - http://www.mrcmekong.org/ MRC_news/speeches/MRCS-CEO-Responses-TERRA.pdf (Дата обращения 14.03.2010).

^{Rogozhina N. G.} 6 Decree. soch., p. 104.

^{Singh S.} 7 Mekong-Ganga Cooperation Initiative: Analysis and Assessment of India's Engagement with Greater Mekong Sub-region // IRASEC Occasional Paper No. 3. Bangkok: Research Institute on Contemporary South-East Asia/ 2007, p. 20, 21.

⁸ Меконг - река Азии - http://geosfera.info/aziya/52-mekong-glavnaya-arteriya-indokitaya.html

^{Shabalina G. S.} 9 Regional'noe i mezhdunarodnoe sotrudnichestvo po razvitii regiona Bolshogo Mekonga v 2009 - 2011 gg. [Regional and international cooperation on the development of the Greater Mekong region in 2009-2011]. 2012. N 19, с. 114. (Shabalina G.S. 2012. Regionalnoe i mezhdunarodnoe sotrudnichestvo po razvitiyu regiona Bolshogo Mekonga v 2009 - 2011 // Yugo-Vostochnaya Azia: aktualnye problemy razvitiya. N 19) (in Russian)

^{Hang P.} 10 BDP Coordinator MRCS, Modelling of Flow Changes in the Mekong Mainstream for a Range of Water Resources Development Scenarios: Preliminary Results. Presentation at Regional Multi-Stakeholder Consultation of the MRC Hydropower Programme, 25 - 27 September 2008, Vientiane, Lao PDR - http://www.mrcmekong.org/ download/programmes/hydropower/presentations/Hydropower%20for um%2025 - 26%20Sept%20final%20version%2025%2009%2008.pdf

¹¹ Power and responsibility. The Mekong River Commission and Lower Mekong mainstream dams. Ajoint report of the Australian Mekong Resource Centre. University of Sydnev and Oxfam Australia. October 2009, p. 11,13.

¹² Ibid., p. 11.

^{Delauney G.} 13 Laos hydropower a "battery" for power-hungry region // BBC News - http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/11962210

¹⁴ National Interests and Transboundary Water Governance in the Mekong. In collaboration with Danish International Development Assistance, Philip Hirsch, Kurt Morck Jensen with Ben Boer, Naomi Carrard, Stephen FitzGerald, Rosemary Lyster. May 2006, p. 144.

¹⁵ Ibid., p. 145.

¹⁶ Strategic environmental assessment of hydropower on the Mekong mainstream. Final report. October, 2010 - http://russiandams.ru/sites/ russiandarns/files/review-page/files/sea-main-final-report.pdf

¹⁷ Construction of a hydroelectric power station on the Mekong River in Indochina will deprive local residents of fish / / RIA Novosti, 28.08.2012 - http://ria.ru/business/ 20120828/731985532. html#ixzz2TpiijvRl

¹⁸ Construction of a hydroelectric dam on the Mekong River could deprive millions of people of their main source of protein, 28.08.2012 http://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/

^{Shabalina G. S.} 19 Decree. op.

²⁰ MRC takes Don Sahong Project discussions to ministerial level, Vientiane, Lao PDR, 16th Jan 2014 - http://www.mrcmekong.org/news-and-events/news/mrc-takes-don-sahong-project-discussions -to-ministerial-level/

²¹ Ibidem.

²² Power and responsibility.., p. 23.

²³ Ibidem.

²⁴ Ibid., p. 24.

^{Hang P.} 25 Op. cit.

²⁶ Ibidem.

²⁷ MRCS/WUP-FIN Final Report - Part 2: Research findings and recommendations WUP-FIN Phase 2 - Hydrological, Environmental and Socio-Economic Modelling Tools for the Lower Mekong Basin Impact Assessment. Mekong River Commission and Finnish Environment Institute Consultancy Consortium, Vientiane, Lao PDR http://www.eia.fi/EIA_main/EIA_exampproj/WUP-FIN/Reports/wup-fi n2/wup-fin2_final-report_part2.pdf

²⁸ Power and responsibility.., p. 25.

²⁹ Ibid., p. 26.

^{Barlow C., Baran E., Halls A. and Kshatriysa M.} 30 How much of the Mekong fish catch is at risk from mainstream dam development? // Catch and Culture. 2008, 14(3), p. 20 - http://www.mrcmekong.org/download/ programmes/fisheries/Catch_Culture_vol_14.3.pdf

^{Baran E., Starr P. and Kura Y.} 31 Influence of built structures on Tonle Sap fisheries: Synthesis Report. Cambodia National Mekong Committee and the WorldFish Center. Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 2007, p. 24.

³² Agriculture & Irrigation // Mekong River Commission For Sustainable Development - http://www.mrcmekong.org/topics/agricul-ture-and-irrigation/

^{Piman Thanapon.} 33 Irrigation sector review and scenarios for irrigation development, Abstract // Mini Symposium "Basin-wide collaboration in the agriculture and irrigation subsectors towards the development and food security in the Lower Mekong Basin". Mekong River Commission, Vientiane, 13 - 14 November, 2012, p. 13.

³⁴ Agriculture & Irrigation...

^{Piman Thanapon.} 35 Op. cit., p. 13.

³⁶ Climate Risks in the Mekong Delta: Ca Mau and Kien Giang Provinces of Viet Nam. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2013, p. 1.

³⁷ Agriculture & Irrigation...

³⁸ Demonstration of Multi-functionality of Paddy Fields // Mekong River Commission For Sustainable Development - http://www.mrcme-kong.org/about-the-mrc/programmes/agriculture-and-irrigation-programm e/demonstration-of-multi-functionality-of-paddy-fields/

^{Minami Itaru.} 39 Climate change scenarios and their implications for agricultural development // Mini Symposium "Basin-wide collaboration in the agriculture and irrigation subsectors towards the development and food security in the Lower Mekong Basin". Mekong River Commission, Vientiane, 13 - 14 November, 2012, p. 26.

^{Rogozhina N. G.} 40 Izmenenie klimata i problema migratsii v stranakh SE [Climate change and migration problem in the Southeast Asian countries]. 2013. N 20, с. 140 - 141. (Rogozhina N.G. 2013. Izmenenie klimata i problema migratsii v stranakh YuVA // Yugo-Vostochnaya Aziya: aktualnye problemy razvitiya. N 20) (in Russian)

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