Based on the materials obtained during the excavations of the Pum Snai necropolis in the I-VI centuries AD, and their comparison with the data from the mouth of the Mekong River, the problems of burial rites, beliefs, economic and social development, and the organization of society in Northwestern Cambodia in the Iron Age are considered.

Keywords: Iron Age, funeral rite, Pum Snai, Cambodia, Okeo culture, Prohia.

Problem statement

The funeral rite provides important material for studying the social development of ancient societies and their material culture. As, for example, V. I. Molodin noted, the study of the Chicha-1 necropolis of the late Bronze and Early Iron Ages yielded data on the features of the ethno-cultural population, the organization of society (the "social model"), and its economic structure [2006, p.119]. We can also add the possibility of identifying ethnic ties by comparing the funeral rite, belief systems, and a number of other features of different cultures.

In Cambodia, where settlements are poorly preserved due to the climate (two dry and wet seasons), building structures (tree branches, tropical grasses), workshops (small rural workshops), etc.*, necropolises are almost the only type of prehistoric monuments*. Their research provides a basis for studying not only the formation of the state and the development of class society, but also ethnic processes in this part of the Indochina Peninsula. As emphasized by the French historian and epigraphist J. Ccedes (1886-1969), the development of Southeast Asia was greatly influenced by trade relations and population migrations from India, which caused the so - called Indianization of society (Ccedes, 2001).

* The existence of the settlement suggests two factors: earthen ramparts, known primarily in the Mekong Delta, in the south-east of modern Cambodia [Recent studies..., 1999; Haidle, 2005], which, however, do not exist in the north-western regions, and the presence of metal objects, ceramics, glass beads in the absence of human burials, which indirectly indicates that this is a place of economic activity of human collectives, although in some cases the clothing complex may be just a treasure trove.

* Traditionally in Cambodia, prehistory is considered to be the period before the formation of the centralized Angkor Empire, i.e. before the beginning of the IX century. However, since the IV-V centuries in the Mekong Delta on the territory of modern Vietnam and since the VI century in Cambodia proper, significant temple complexes and developed forms of stone and bronze sculpture have appeared, which suggests the existence of a state. Thus, the prehistoric period should be limited to about the fifth century AD.

Status of research

The prehistoric period of Cambodia and the early Iron Age in particular are poorly studied, especially in the north-western part of the country, where there are practically no studied monuments except for Pum Snai, with the exception of Krasang Tmeya, located from Snai across the river in 2 - 3 km. Nevertheless, its study has a long history. In 1868, Lieutenant Zh. Mura (1827-1885), appointed representative of the French protectorate to the King's court, surveyed the Samrong Sen monument in Central Cambodia (now prov. Kampong Chnang), where ancient stone and bronze tools and ceramics originated, which were found in abundance by local residents (Mosha, 1883). In 1876, he moved his finds to France and gave them to the Natural History Museum of Toulouse. In the future, the materials of J. Moore were studied by the director of this museum, J.-B. Noulet (1879). At the same time, the term "prehistoire" was first introduced in relation to the era before the Angkor Empire.

Scientific excavations in Cambodia began only in the first half of the 20th century and were conducted at two Neolithic - Bronze Age sites: Samrong Sen in 1923 and Mdu Prey in the Prov. Pria Vihia, in northern Cambodia in 1938 (Mansuy, 1902, 1923; Levy, 1943). Grolier in 1962 excavated monuments with a circular earthen rampart in the area of Memot, prov. Kampong Cham. In the southern part of Vietnam, L. Maleret examined a number of similar archaeological sites, including Okeo, after which the culture was later named (Maleret, 1951-1952, 1959-1963; Groslier, 1966; Trane, 1995, 1996).

In the late 1960s, the outbreak of civil war in Cambodia interrupted research. They resumed in the second half of the 1990s in the south-east of the country. In 1995, the Angkor Borei Monument (prov. Takeo), and in the 2000s, a number of other sites belonging to the Early Iron Age (starting from the IV century BC): Phnom Borey (prov. Takeo), Ba Phnom, Bit Mia (no excavation), Village 10.8, Krek 52/62 (prov. Kampong Cham). In 2009, A. Reineke conducted excavations of the rich necropolis of Prohia (prov. Prey Weng), where a large number of gold jewelry and bronze drums were found (Albrecht et al., 2000; Haidle, 2005; Heng Sophady, 2005; Reinecke, Vin Laychour, Seng Sonetra, 2009). All of these archaeological sites are located along or near the border with Vietnam. A large number of cultural monuments of Okeo were discovered by Vietnamese archaeologists after the liberation of the south of the country in 1975, and the last discoveries were known as Zongleung (prov. Bazhia-Vung Tau), Guotiua (prov. Long'an) and others (Le Xuan Diem, Dao Linn Cou, Vo Si Khai, 1995; Vu Quoc Hien, Thirong Dac Chien, Le Van Chien, 2008; Reinecke, Vin Laychour, Seng Sonetra, 2009).

Throughout Cambodia, across the Mekong River, Pum Snai and Krasang Tmei (prov. Bantei Myeongchei) and Prey Khmeng (prov. Viewreap).

Description of Pum Snai burials

Pum Snai Necropolis is located in the villages of Snai and Tepkosa of Rohal Commune in Pria No Pria District, prov. 1). The monument was opened in 2000 during the construction of the road. In prov. Bantei Menchei residents experienced financial difficulties after the civil war, which led them to illegal excavations. A huge number of artistic objects made of bronze, jewelry, gold, etc. were found [O'Reilly, Pheng Sytha, 2001; O'Reilly, Thuy Chanthourn, Domett, 2004; Trane, 2006, 2008; Laptev, 2006; Lapteff, 2007]. In 2001 and 2003. Phnom Penh's Royal University of Fine Arts conducted excavations at two sites near d. Snai (fig. 2).

After several explorations of the area and examining materials salvaged from illegal excavations, I was able to organize a survey in 2007 by a Cambodian-Japanese expedition led by Chuch Pyn. The excavations were carried out by the National Museum staff and students of the Royal University of Fine Arts in Phnom Penh with the participation of Japanese specialists in five locations around the village. Snai, called excavations A, B, C, D, and E (Fig. 2).

Excavation A, measuring 20x3 m, was located to the east of the road leading to the village, and in front of a hill called sacred by the locals. The top layer, 3.5 cm thick, consisted of light gray crumbly earth, while a layer of darker soil with a thickness of 20 cm lay below. 3). The buried person was laid on his back, face up, with his limbs extended, and his head turned to the northwest. There were ceramic vessels in the abdominal area. The burial site was partially disturbed during illegal excavations. Predatory pits penetrated the first and second layers, one of them was located in the immediate vicinity of border 1.

In the third layer of lighter soil with an admixture of crushed stone, border 2 was found, oriented to the west, with a slight deviation to the north. The position of the skeleton is the same as in pogr. 1. During the burial, a large pot of gray thin-walled ceramics was placed on the stomach of the deceased, from which it was preserved-

* There were ceremonies dedicated to neko-spirits of nature.

Figure 1. Main Iron Age monuments in Cambodia and southern Vietnam.

2. General plan of the Pum Snai necropolis, prov. Bantey Menchei.

Fig. 3. Burial 1. Excavation A.

4. Animal bones and beads in a ceramic vessel (excavation A, border 2).

moose only the bottom. The pot contained bones (apparently of some small animal), beads made of carnelian and glass (Fig. 4). In the fourth layer, two extremely fragmented bones were found. By the nature of the inventory, it can be assumed that they belonged to the same type and period from border 2.

The clothing complex is presented in small fragments. Since the ceramics in the undisturbed burials were preserved quite well, it can be assumed that most of the inventory and bones were damaged during illegal excavations. This is also evidenced by various artifacts found outside the burials, starting from the upper layer. Thus, a broken stone knife (the earliest of the finds, typologically it should be attributed to the Neolithic) was found in the same layer as

an iron halberd. Among the inventory there are many iron tools and weapons: halberds, knives, arrowheads, sickles. The presence of agricultural implements made of iron indicates that the burials in Excavation A date back to the Advanced Iron Age.

Excavations B and C were laid west of the village road deep into the rice fields. Initially, they were intended to obtain soil samples for a group of Japanese paleoclimatologists, but after a burial site was found in the excavation, it was deepened and expanded.

Excavation B had a length of 10 m and a width of 1.5 m with cuts in the eastern part, where burials were found. The top layer, 20 cm thick, consisted of gray earthy soil, with a 10 cm thick brown clay under it, and the same clay below, but with strong oxidation. Perhaps there was some kind of iron structure in it. In this layer, two burials of very good preservation and looted ones were found. The position of the skeleton in border 1 is the same as in excavation A, only the skull is turned to the right (to the west). To the right of it was a vessel. The other vessel was located in the abdominal area, as in excavation A. A short iron sword was placed in the left hand of the buried man, and a long one was placed under the vessel in the right (Figure 5). Both vessels are made of smooth, thin-walled ceramics of yellow color, the same as in layer 3 in excavation A, which gives reason to attribute them to the same time-the developed Iron Age. Burial 2 in the same layer represents a completely different burial rite. In a circular pit, bones lay in disarray, along with several ceramic vessels. However, judging by the location of the skull, the burial site is oriented to the northwest (Fig. A ceramic decoration in the shape of a horn was found in the shoulder area. Almost all the pottery from this excavation is smooth yellow, with the exception of one vessel made of gray.

In an excavation with a width of 1.5 m and a length of 20 m, only fragments of several ceramic vessels and a large number (several dozen) of extremely small (1-2 mm in diameter) beads made of orange stone with a hole in the center were found.

Excavation D was laid at the top of the "sacred hill", where there was a blockage of stones-obviously the ruins of some structure. During exploration in 2006. I found among the stones and around a large number of fragments of ceramics of gray and yellowish color with stamped checkered or painted spiral ornaments. We laid horizontal pits 2 m wide and 30 m long in the four cardinal directions from the ruins, except for the southern direction, which is limited to the forest (10 m long). In the southern pit, a few centimeters from the surface, several fragments of bodies with pieces of modern fabric were found in a layer of dark red soil. In the next layer of yellowish soil, traces of a stone structure were found, to which the blockage belonged.

In the western pit at a depth of 2 m, in the lowest, fourth layer of dark brown soil, located under two layers of yellowish soil, 10 bones were cleared. The burials turned out to be looted, which is natural given the depth of their contents.

Fig. 5. Burial 1. Excavation of V.

Fig. b. Burial 2. Excavation c

occurrences. All those buried were laid on their backs. with outstretched limbs, head turned to the left (south) or up, oriented to the east. That is, the burial rite is the same as in Excavation A, but the orientation is different. Some of the skeletons are missing the upper part of the postcranial skeleton (Figure 7), although others are completely preserved (Figure 8). A significant part of them is overlain by later burials. The graves were pulled out one above the other, while the previous burial was partially destroyed. The inventory consists mainly of smooth-walled vessels made of yellow or red clay - pots without handles or jugs with a single handle and spout, called "kendi"in Khmer. These types of ceramics are characteristic of the late stage of the Okeo culture in the Mekong Delta (South Vietnam). A large number of "candy" is the main difference between these burials and burials in excavations A and B, where they are practically absent. Several dozen red, blue, and rarely green glass and stone beads were found in graves 4 and 10. The inventory includes iron products of the same types as in the materials from Excavation A: arrowheads, knives, and short sickles. Bronze is relatively small - bells, rings, bracelets. It is obvious that iron prevails here. Thus, the burials in excavation D, despite the great depth of their occurrence, should certainly be considered the latest of all, approaching the pre-Angkor period in time.

The most important discovery on the monument was made in the same western pit: just above the graves, a piece of molten glass of approx. 3 cm in diameter. This find is evidence of at least melting glass here, on the spot, i.e. human economic activity.

Excavation site E was laid on the territory of D. Snai, 150 m north-east of excavation A. Since the entire area of the village was dug up in search of" treasures", we chose a site under the road leading to the fields, because illegal excavations around it, according to local residents, gave a very good"harvest". The excavation had a length of 30 m, a width of 2 m (along the width of the road) with cuts where necessary. Five layers were identified. The upper layer, 10-20 cm thick, consisted of gray earth. It contains a Carnelian bead, red and green micro beads, a bronze bell and a ceramic spinning wheel. In the next layer of light gray earthy soil with a thickness of 20-50 cm, six burials were found. The position of the five skeletons is the same as in excavations A and D, the orientation is western. The sixth burial site is a pit, like a pogrom. 2 in the excavation of V. The bones were in absolute disarray (Fig. 9). The third layer is made of even lighter material.-

Fig. 7. Burial 1. Excavation D.

Figure 8. Burial 15. Dig D.

Figure 9. Burial site 13. Excavation site E.

gray clay with a thickness of 10-40 cm contained seven burials. Two of them are pits with bones and ceramics scattered in disarray. The other five buried men were laid in an extended position on their backs, with their heads turned to the left, facing west. In layer 4 of reddish clay soil with a thickness of 20-60 cm, four more similar burials were found (Figs. Animal bones were found in the northern and southern parts of the excavation.

Materials from Excavation E show not only the coexistence of two different burial rites, but also a significant difference in inventory between them. Pit burials contained only a small amount of pottery. The inventory of other graves is quite diverse. Ceramic vessels were placed on the stomachs and feet of the deceased. In border 11 (layer 2), instead of a ceramic pot, there was a bronze pot, a large number of bracelets and a pair of gold earrings of the Okeo culture type were found; the inventory also includes a "candy" vessel (Fig. 12). Many bronze bracelets were also found in four burials (12, 14, 15, 17) in layer 4. Bronze earrings were found in border 16 (layer 3), and a bronze ring was found in border 8 (layer 2). The bronze vessel was located in the area of the head of burial 14 (Fig. 13). Iron products are much smaller than in other excavations, these are fragments of tools from the second layer (border 11) and several arrowheads from the fourth.

Ceramic vessels from the excavation are round-bottomed and flat-bottomed, only in a single instance the "candy" of the early type is found. Gray ceramics predominate, although there is also a thin-walled yellowish one, characteristic of the late period.

Several dozen red, blue, and green cut glass and stone beads ("Indo-Pacific type"), rhombic Carnelian beads, and hundreds of red cut "micro beads" were found in layer 2, and hundreds of "micro beads"were found in layer 4. According to the inventory, the burials in Excavation E are the earliest of all, although the presence of gold earrings characteristic of the Okeo culture and "candy" (in layer 2) shows that they are not much older than the others. Based on the similarity with the materials of the Okeo culture in South Vietnam, excavated burials at the Pum Snai sle monument-

10. Burials 11, 15 and 14 (from left to right). Dig E.

Fig. 11. Burial 10. Dig E.

Fig. 12. Burial 11. Excavation E.

Burials in excavations A, B, and D are most likely dated to the V - VI centuries, while those in excavation E are dated to the III-IV centuries, and the earliest ones (in layer 4) can hardly be older than the first century AD. the Bronze Age. A significant part of the jewelry from looted burials (the collection at Wat Rajabo Temple) - massive bronze bracelets with a connector, closed with bells, with spiral ornaments, glass beads and Carnelian-shows similarities with the inventory of the late Ban Chiang period (c.300 BC-200 AD) in Thailand. This suggests the existence of earlier burials in Pum Snai, which may also be indirectly indicated by the stone knife found in excavation A.

13. Burial 14 (bottom). Dig E.

Features of the funeral rite of Pum Snaya

As noted above, there are two types of burials found at the Pum Snai necropolis: those buried in an elongated position and pits with randomly sketched bones. Obviously, the second type is secondary burials. The inventory in them is extremely simple - these are ceramic vessels. A ceramic object similar in shape to an epaulette was also found in excavation B, but its purpose is not clear. The inventory of burials of the first type is quite rich. This is not to say that these burials are temporary. First, they predominate (31 in four excavations), while the second type of burial is rare (one in excavation B, three in excavation E). Second, as Excavation D shows, the first type of burial was final-often destroyed by later graves from almost the same period. Apparently, the memory of the departed was short-lived.

Burials of the first type are ground, there are no traces of a sarcophagus or burial chamber. The burial rite is quite stable. The buried person was lying on his back, with his limbs stretched out, his head turned to the right or positioned straight. Ceramic vessels were placed near it (at the mouth) and on the stomach. In one case, the head was covered with a bronze cauldron (burial 14, excavation E; see Figure 13), which resembles a skull covered with a bronze drum in the Prohia necropolis (Reinecke, VinLaychour, Seng Sonetra, 2009, p. 46). Ceramic vessels were placed at the feet of the buried or nothing was placed. Swords and knives were placed in the hands of the men. The buried people were decorated with bracelets, earrings, and sometimes rings. Most of these items are made of bronze, while weapons and agricultural implements (the sickle from Excavation A) are made of iron. Gold (or gold-plated) jewelry is almost nonexistent. In excavation E, earrings of a typical Okeo type were found, made of gold with an admixture of silver. Several other similar earrings are known from looted burials. Glass and natural stones served as materials for various types of beads, usually simple cylindrical or round, less often diamond-shaped.

Animal bones found in ceramic vessels (grave 2, excavation A) and in the burial area (excavation E) indicate sacrifice. Although some of the burials of the first type contain more inventory than others, there is no evidence of significant property stratification. There is not much data about economic activity either. With regard to the second type of burial, which differs according to the funeral rite, it is not clear at the moment whether this rite reflects the existence of a particular socio-religious or ethnic group. Where the floor of the buried person is set, it is clear that men were buried with weapons, women-only with jewelry. It is obvious that there is a layer of soldiers in this society, among whose burials the most expressive is pogrom 1 in excavation B. Next to it and in excavation E there were burials of the second type. It can be assumed that they are evidence of the sacrifice of representatives of some unfree groups of the population or captives.

Those buried in Pum Snai undoubtedly lived in the Iron Age. This is evidenced by the fact that not only

weapons, as well as agricultural implements, are made of iron, and only jewelry is made of bronze.

A comparison of the materials of the Pum Snai and Prohia necropolises, as well as the Okeo culture in Vietnam, shows many common features: the funeral rite of the first type, the lack of clear orientation, and the typological similarity of the inventory and its forms. However, there are a number of differences. In Pum Snai, there are no urn burials typical of the Okeo culture in the Mekong Delta region, particularly for children's burials. And on the monuments of this culture, there are no known burials of the second type (pit), presented in the necropolis under consideration. Pum Saya materials contain much less gold, no bronze drums (which, however, are typical only for Prokhia), and fewer luxury items in general [Le Xuan Diem, Bao Linh Cou, Vo Si Khai, 1995; Nguyen Duyen, Nguyen Phung Ann, 1995; Vu Quoc Hien, Thuong Vac Chien, Le Van Chien, 2008; Reinecke, Vin Laychour, Seng Sonetra, 2009]. The Prohia necropolis has preserved evidence of human economic activity. The discovery of iron slag and objects outside the burial context suggested that the necropolis was adjacent to the settlement [Reinecke, Vin Laychour, Seng Sonetra, 2009, p. 61]. In Pum Snai, a piece of molten glass was found in excavation D, which, however, belongs to a later layer. There is no convincing evidence of the existence of a settlement near the necropolis in this case.

Conclusions

Excavations of the Pum Snai necropolis provide important information about the life and social development of the ancient Khmer people in what is now Northwestern Cambodia at the beginning of the Early Iron Age. Funerary rites and equipment are mostly similar to those of the Okeo culture at the mouth of the Mekong. However, there are also some peculiarities: the second type of burial, the absence of funeral urns, bronze drums, and a small amount of gold jewelry. There is no convincing evidence of economic activity in the area of the necropolis. Excavations at Pum Snai show the existence of a society in which warriors played a significant role. Nevertheless, the property stratification and distribution of luxury goods that indicate the existence of exploitation of other people's labor are not yet expressed. Interpretation of the second type of burial as burials of a separate social or ethnic group does not significantly change the situation. Obviously, compared to the necropolises at the mouth of the Mekong, Pum Snai is a more ordinary burial ground, with fewer luxury items. The ancient Khmer center of early iron culture was located at the mouth of the Mekong River. Through trade exchange, some items, such as gold jewelry, spread to the interior of the continent, as, perhaps, the influence of the coastal ancient Khmer state of Funan, known from Chinese sources.

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The article was submitted to the editorial Board on 26.06.12, in the final version-on 16.08.12.

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